Fascism Emerges in Italy

I     The Rise of Mussolini

1. A) Postwar Discontent
2. Italy was unhappy with the creation of Yugoslavia as they wanted some territory there.
3. Disorder in Italy increased inspired by the Russian revolution.
4. Peasants seized land
5. Workers went on strike or seized factories
6. These actions frightened landowners and industrialists who held power.
7. Returning veterans faced unemployment
8. Trade declined and taxes rose.
9. The government split into feuding factions & seemed powerless to solve these problems.
10. B) Mussolini and the Fascist Party
11. Benito Mussolini was a socialist who during the war rejected socialism to embrace intense nationalism.
12. In 1919 he organized veterans and other discontented Italians into the Fascist Party.
13. They took their name from the ancient Roman fasces, a symbol of unity and authority.

4. Mussolini was a forceful & charismatic speaker who people listened to.
5. He promised to end corruption & replace turmoil with order.
6. He also promised to revive the greatness of the Roman empire in modern Italy.
7. The Mediterranean Sea would become a “Roman lake” Italy would control.  (Mare Nostrum = Our Sea)
8. C) Control by Terror
9.     Mussolini organized a militia called the Black Shirts who were used to attack and terrorize political opponents.
10. They broke up political rallies.
11. They attacked farmer’s cooperatives
12. They murdered political opponents.
13. Many Italians accepted these tactics because they had lost faith in constitutional government.
14. In 1922 the Fascist party held a rally in Naples where Mussolini promised to march to Rome and demand changes to the government.
15. Tens of thousands of fascists made this March on Rome.
16. Afraid of the power Mussolini displayed, King Emmanuel III asked him to form a new government as Prime Minister.

II   Mussolini’s Totalitarian Rule

1. A) Gaining Control of the Government
2. At first fascists only held a few cabinet positions.
3. By 1925 Mussolini had assumed more power and taken the title of Il Duce (The Leader)
4. He suppressed rival parties.
5. He muzzled the press.
6. He rigged elections.
7. He replaced elected officials with Fascist supporters
8. In 1929 Mussolini recognized the Vatican City as an independent state, leading to recognition by Pope Pius XI.  This gave him some credibility with Italian Catholics.
9. In theory, Italy was a parliamentary monarchy, but in fact it was a dictatorship upheld by the use of terror.
10. Critics were thrown into prison, forced into exile or murdered.
11. Secret police and propaganda was used to support the fascist state.
12. B) The State Controls the Economy
13. To spur economic growth & end conflicts between business owners and workers Mussolini kept capitalism but brought the economy under state control.
14. Under Mussolini’s corporate state representatives of business, labor, government and the Fascist party controlled industry, agriculture and trade.
15. Business and production increased.
16. Workers were forbidden to strike and their wages were kept low.
17. C) Loyalty to the State
18. Under fascism, individuals were the property of the state.
19. People were bombarded with propaganda glorifying the state.
20. “Believe! Obey! Fight!” became their motto.                    
21. Men were urged to be ruthless.
22. Women were pushed out of jobs and told to be mothers instead.
23. Fascist youth groups taught children to obey strict military discipline and they were taught the glories of ancient Rome.
24. Young Fascists marched in torchlight parades and sang patriotic hymns and chants. “Mussolini is always right” was a frequent chant.
25. By the 1930s, many of these children had grown up to become good fascist soldiers.
26. D) Building a Totalitarian State
27. Mussolini and the Fascist party built the first modern totalitarian state.
28. The only political party was the Fascist party.
29. Despite Mussolini’s attempts, fascist rule was never as absolute as Stalin’s Soviet Union or Nazi Germany.

       Nine Characteristics of Totalitarian States

1) Indoctrination – To teach people to accept a system of beliefs (thoughts) without question.

2) Propaganda – Using newspapers, movies, magazines, speeches and radio (television and the internet today) to give people a one-sided message.

3) Censorship – The removal of anything objectionable to, or critical of, the ruling party.

4) Terror – The use of violence or threat of violence to produce fear so that people will obey the state.

5) Charisma – The quality of a leader that makes people eager to follow him or her.

6) One Party Rule – Only one political party is allowed to exist.  It has complete power.

7) Economic Control – The state decides what will be made and sold.

8) Extreme Nationalism – The belief by a group of people that their country is better than any other country.

9) Aggressive Foreign Policy – The state will take what it believes it needs through imperialist expansion.

            Authoritarian vs Totalitarian

Authoritarian State – A government having control, but not total control, over the lives of the people.

Totalitarian State – A government having total control over the lives of the people.

              New Forces in China and Japan

I     Trouble in the Chinese Republic.

1. A) Struggles for Power.
2. Sun Yixian hoped to rebuild China on the Three Principles of the People: Nationalism, Democracy and Economic Security for all.
3. Problem: the people felt more loyalty to families and clans than the nation.
4. In 1912 Sun stepped down as president for a more powerful man, General Yuan Shikai.  He felt Yuan could build a strong central government.
5. Instead Yuan rejected Sun and tried to make himself a new emperor.
6. When Yuan died in 1916 there was a fight for succession which created more disorder.
7. In the provinces local warlords seized power and fought each other for control, causing the economy to collapse.
8. B) Foreign Imperialism
9. During this time, foreign powers increased their influence over Chinese affairs, increasing their economic influence and control of port cities.
10. Japanese officials presented Yuan Shikai with the Twenty-One Demands, a list of demands that would make China a protectorate.
11. Juan gave in to some demands because China was too weak to fight back.
12. During the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Allies gave Japan control over some former German possessions in China.  This angered the Chinese Nationalists.
13. C) The May 4^th Movement Seeks Reform.
14. Student protests erupted in Beijing on May 4^th, 1919, and later spread to other cities.
15. They protested the idea of giving away Chinese territory and boycotted Japanese goods and businesses.
16. These protests led to a cultural and intellectual struggle called the May Fourth Movement.
17. Chinese reformers wanted to learn from the west and use that knowledge to end foreign domination.  Many rejected traditional Confucian and favored western science and ideas such as nationalism and democracy.
18. Women fought to end traditional practices such as foot-binding and their seclusion in the home.  They worked to create opportunities for women in education and the economy.
19. D) Chinese Communism is Born.

              ­­1.    Some Chinese turned to Russian communism to learn how to organize a party. 

2. The Soviet Union trained Chinese students and military officers to become a vanguard, or elite leaders.  By the 1920s the Chinese Communist Party had been formed.

II   Nationalists and Communists

1. The Nationalists and Jiang Jieshi.
2. In 1921 Sun Yixian and his

Guomindang, or Nationalist Party, had formed a government in south China.

2. He planned to raise an army to defeat the warlords and unite China.
3. When Western democracies refused to help, he accepted aid from the Soviet Union and joined forces with a small group of Communists.
4. Sun died in 1925 and the Nationalists were now led by a young army officer, Jiang Jieshi.
5. In 1926 Jiang began the Northern Expedition in order to defeat the local warlords or get them to join with him.  Working together, they had success in uniting China.
6. In 1927, afraid of his communist allies, Jiang turned on them and killed both the communist leaders and workers who supported them.  This started a bitter civil war that lasted for 22 years.

1. B) Communism and Mao Zedong.
2. One communist who escaped Jiang’s attack was Mao Zedong.  He believed in looking for support from among the peasants and not urban workers.
3. In areas the communists controlled, they redistributed land to peasants and offered them schooling and health care.
4. C) The Long March.
5. Attacked and pursued by the Guomindang who were trying to exterminate all communists, they fled westward.
6. From 1934-1935 Mao led 100,000 followers more than 6,000 miles to Yan’an in what was called the Long March.
7. Mao used guerrilla war tactics to fight back as they fled.  Only 20,000 of them survived the march.
8. The march became a symbol of communist heroism, inspiring peasant villages to support them and young people to join them as new recruit
9. Upon reaching Yan’an, Mao rebuilt his forces and planned new ways of fighting the Guomindang.

III  China Faces Japanese Imperialism.

1. In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria in northeastern China, adding it to their empire.
2. As Japanese aggression increased, Jiang’s generals put pressure on him to end his anti-communist campaign and work with Mao in a united effort against Japan.
3. In 1937 Japan attacked again starting what was called the Second Sino-Japanese War.  (Some consider this to be the beginning of WWII.)
4. Airplanes bombed cities and Japanese troops overran eastern China, including Beijing and Guangzhou.
5. Jiang and his government retreated to the interior and set up a new capital at Chongqing. 
6. The Japanese captured the city of Nanjing on December 13^th.  It was an important cultural center for China. 
7. The Japanese army killed hundreds

of thousands of soldiers and civilians and brutalized still more.  It became known around the world as the “Rape of Nanjing.”

4. The Japanese invasion temporarily suspended the Civil War between the Nationalists and Communists who formed an uneasy alliance.
5. Jiang’s army fought directly against the Japanese while Mao engaged in guerrilla attacks against them. 

IV   Conflicting Forces in Japan

1. A) Expansion and Economic Growth.
2. Japan wanted to become a major world power equal to the Western nations.  Problem: It lacked natural resources for industrial growth.
3. Unlike China in the 1920s which was divided, Japan was a powerful united country with a growing industrial economy.
4. During World War I the Japanese economy enjoyed remarkable growth.  Exports and heavy industry grew making Japan a world power
5. While Western powers fought in Europe, Japan expanded its influence throughout East Asia
6. Korea was annex as a colony in 1910.
7. At the end of the war the Allies gave several German East Asian possessions to Japan, including the Chinese province of Shandong.
8. B) Liberal Reforms of the 1920s.
9. Japan tried to move towards a more wide-spread democracy.
10. Political parties grew stronger.
11. The Diet (Japanese Parliament) began to exercise more power.
12. In 1925 all adult men were given the right to vote.
13. Western ideas about women’s rights began to have an impact. (They would not gain suffrage until 1945)
14. Despite greater democracy, powerful business leaders within the Zaibatsus (large corporations) strongly influenced government.
15. They did this through political

donations to different parties.

1. They pushed for policies that favored international trade & their own interests.
2. Japan’s aggressive expansion threatened its economic relationship with the Western powers.
3. Moderate politicians decided to slow down foreign expansion to improve relations with the West.
4. in 1922 Japan signed an agreement to limit the size of its navy & it also agreed to leave Shandong. 
5. Japanese politicians reduced military spending.
6. C) Lurking (Hidden) Problems.
7. The Japanese economy slowed down in the 1920s, growing more slowly than any time in its history
8. Rural peasants did not share in the nation’s earlier prosperity.
9. Low wage factory workers were being attracted to the ideas of Marx and Lenin.
10. The younger generation began to rebel against tradition.   
11. They adopted western fads & fashion.
12. They rejected family authority in favor of the western ideal of individual freedom.
13. Tensions between the government & the military increased.
14. Conservatives and military officers attacked government corruption, including payoffs from powerful Zaibatzus.
15. They condemned Western influence for undermining basic Japanese values of obedience & respect for authority.
16. A powerful earthquake in 1923 struck Tokyo.  The destruction and uncontrolled fires killed over 100,000 people & damaged more than 650,000 buildings.  The recovery cost was enormous.

V    The Ultra-Nationalist Reaction

1. A) Increasing unrest
2. In 1929 the Great Depression hit Japan with devastating effect.
3. Trade suffered as foreign buyers

could no longer afford Japanese exports.

1. Unemployment in the cities grew while rural peasants were near starvation.
2. Economic disaster fed the discontent of leading military officials and ultranationalists, or extreme nationalists.  
3. They condemned politicians for giving in to Western powers & ending Japanese expansion while the West already had large empires.
4. Japanese nationalists were also outraged by U.S., Canadian & Australian policies which shut out Japanese immigration to these countries.  Japan resented its people being treated as second-class citizens in most other countries.
5. As the economy worsened, nationalists called for renewed imperial expansion to gain control of natural resources needed for their industry & new homes for their growing population
6. B) The Manchurian Incident
7. In 1931 a group of Japanese army officers provoked an incident to give them the chance to seize Manchuria, which was rich in natural resources.
8. A section of track on a Japanese owned railroad was blown up.  The army claimed it was done by the Chinese army and they attacked, claiming self-defense.
9. Without talking with their own government, the Japanese army quickly took over all of Manchuria.  They renamed it Manzhouguo and set up a puppet-state under the last Chinese emperor, Henry Pu Yi.
10. Politicians in Tokyo objected to the army’s actions but the public supported them.
11. The League of Nations condemned this invasion, but took no further action.
12. Japan quit the League, then cancelled their naval disarmament agreement.

VI   Militarists Gain Power

1. A) Revival of Traditional Values
2. The ultranationalists were winning support from the people for expanding their territory.
3. Politicians and business leaders who opposed expansion were assassinated by members of extreme nationalist societies
4. Military leaders plotted to overthrow the government and in 1936 briefly occupied the center of Tokyo.
5. Civilian government survived, but by 1937 the civilian unrest forced the government to accept military domination.
6. To please the ultranationalists, the government cracked down on socialists & suppressed democratic freedoms.
7. The ultra-nationalists revived ancient warrior values (bushido) and built a cult of godhood around Emperor Hirohito.
8. In theory Hirohito was the country’s supreme political authority, but in practice he had no real power aside from approving what his ministers wanted.
9. The government used schools to teach the nationalists message of absolute obedience to the emperor and service to the state.
10. B) Expansion into China
11. Japan took advantage of China’s civil war to increase its influence there.
12. In 1936 Japan formed an alliance with Germany and Italy.
13. In 1937 Japan invaded China, overrunning the mainland and eastern China.
14. In 1939 World War II broke out in Europe and Japan expanded its war in Asia, attacking British, French and Dutch colonies
15. In 1940, they signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, creating the Axis Powers & expanding the war in Europe into a global conflict.

India Seeks Self-Rule

I     India’s Struggle for Independence Begins

1. A) A New Leader Emerges
2. During World War I more than a

million Indians served overseas because the British government promised greater self-government as a reward      

2.           When the war ended, the British offered only a few minor reforms because they still had little respect for Indian beliefs and customs
3. Indian frustrations continued to increase and calls for independence began
4. Most members of the Indian Congress party were western-educated elite who had little in common with the larger group of Indian peasants
5. It was at this time a new leader came forward to unite the Indian people, Mohandas Gandhi also known as the Mahatma (Great Soul)
6. From a middle class family and a trained lawyer.  Returned to India from South Africa where he was fighting for Hindu rights.  At first he was not in favor of Indian independence

1. B) Muslim League
2. A group of Indian Muslims who believed in independence. Their leader was Muhammad Ali Jinnah 
3. It was organized because many Muslims felt that the Indian Congress Party was only looking out for the interests of the Hindus.
4. C) The Amritsar Massacre
5. In 1919 the British passed the Rowlatt Acts which allowed British officials to arrest and imprison any Indian citizen suspected of sedition or urging people to disobey the government
6. Gandhi & Jinnah opposed these laws.  Gandhi called for and helped to organize protests, but when the protests turned violent, he ended the protest campaign
7. On April 13^th, 1919, a large, peaceful crowd of Sikh protesters gathered in an enclosed field in Amritsar, a city in Northern India.
8. The protest took place during Vaisakhi, an important Sikh holiday.
9. British General Reginald Dyer had banned public meetings, but many in the crowd did not know this.
10. As Indian leaders spoke, Dyer arrived with troops and ordered them to fire on the unarmed crowd. Over 400 protesters were killed and 1,300 wounded
11. The Amritsar massacre caused many Indians, including Gandhi to seek full independence from Britain

II    Gandhi’s Philosophy of Civil Disobedience

1. Non-Violent Protest
2. Gandhi was horrified by the

violence at Amritsar, but he would also condemn Indian acts of violence in response to the massacre

2. He preached a philosophy of

nonviolent protest that he’d first started developing in South Africa .  It was based on the ancient Hindu & Jain doctrine of ahimsa or nonviolence and reverence for all life

3. To fight injustice, he advocated the

use of nonviolent resistance.  His ideas also led him to believe all Indians had a common spiritual character and interest, Hindu or Muslim.

4. He believed the American

philosopher Henry David Thoreau’s ideas about civil disobedience: a refusal to obey unjust laws & Western ideas about democracy and nationalism.

5. Gandhi rejected the inequalities

of the Indian caste system and fought to end the harsh treatment of untouchables, the lowest caste of Indian society.  He called these outcasts Harijans, or “children of God.”  He urged equal rights for all Indians, women as well as men.

1. Restoring National Pride
2. Over the next 20 years Gandhi

Initiated a series of nonviolent actions against British rule.

1. He called for Indians to boycott,

refuse to buy, British goods, especially cotton textiles.  He did this to boost local Indian industries and restore Indian pride

1. He made the spinning wheel the

symbol of the nationalist movement.

1. He abandoned western style

clothing for the dhota, a simple white garment worn by Indian villagers.

2. Through his own example Gandhi

inspired Indians to “get rid of our helplessness.”

3. When protests led to violent riots,

he would fast, pray and call on patriotic Indians to practice self-control

4. Gandhi’s ideas of civil

disobedience attracted wide support & gained the attention of the British government & the world.

III  Gandhi Takes A Stand

1. The Salt March
2. Gandhi decided to challenge the

British monopoly on salt, which he saw as a symbol of British oppression.

1. The British had claimed the sole

right to produce and sell salt

1. Indians were forbidden from

making their own salt and were charged a tax whenever they bought salt from the British.  This tax was used to support the government in India.

2. In 1930 Gandhi wrote to the

British viceroy that he intended to break the salt law and condemned British rule as a curse.

1. On March 12^th, 1930 he set out

with 78 followers on a 240 mile march to the sea.  As the tiny group passed through villages, crowds responded to Gandhi’s message and joined him.

1. On April 6^th, he reached the sea

and picked up a lump of sea salt.  He was quickly arrested and jailed. 

1. Indian villages all along the

coast followed his example, collecting and evaporating salt.  Indians then began selling salt on city streets.  Many were sent to jail. 

1. As Gandhi’s campaign grew

 more than ten thousand Indians were imprisoned.

1. ­­­World Opinion Shifts
2. The Salt March was reported

around the world.  Many newspapers criticized Britain’s harsh reaction to the protests.

2. Stories of police brutally clubbing

peaceful protesters who did not even raise their hands to protect themselves, turned world opinion against the British

3. The Salt March embarrassed

Britain which prided itself on its democratic traditions. 

4. This, and other protests and

Strikes forced Britain to hand over some power to Indians and agree to meet other demands of the Congress party.

5. By 1938 the British were in

negotiations with the Congress party on the issue of independence, but it would be delayed because of World War II.

Nationalist Movements in Africa and the Middle East

I     Africans Protest Colonial Rule

1. A) Exploitation of African Colonies
2. European governments expected colonies to be profitable
3. Natural resources were sent home for use in European factories.  Native people were forced off the best land for white European settlers
4. In Kenya natives were required to carry ID cards, pay a tax on these cards, and live and travel only in certain areas.
5. Farmers were forced to work on European-run plantations or in mines to earn money to pay taxes
6. Farmers who had land were forced to grow cash crops, not food.  This led to famines
7. Many Africans lost their self-sufficiency and depended on European goods.
8. B) Protesting Imperialism
9. Over 1 million Africans fought for their colonial rulers in WWI, hoping their service would lead to more rights in their homelands.  Their service was ignored
10. Western educated Africans started criticizing the injustice of imperial rule
11. Inspired by President Wilson’s call for self-determination, they condemned colonial systems that kept them from ruling their own lands. 
12. During the 1920s and 30s a new generation of African leaders struggled to make people proud of their heritage.
13. Often, protests were put down with violence.
14. C) A Policy of Segregation in South Africa
15. Between 1910 & 1940 white settlers in South Africa strengthened their control
16. They imposed a system of racial segregation through new laws to ensure white economic, political & social supremacy (ex. Only whites could apply for the best paying jobs)
17. Blacks were pushed into low-paying jobs, were evicted from the best land and forced to live on crowded “reserves”
18. In 1936 the right to vote in local elections was taken from them.
19. In 1948 a strict policy of racial segregation called apartheid was introduced
20.   Despite this, African Christian churches and African run newspapers continued to demand rights for African native peoples.  They established the African National Congress (ANC) to protest unfair laws  

       II    A Rising Tide of African Nationalism

1. The Pan-African Congress
2. In the 1920s a new idea called

Pan-Africanism grew.  It called for unity among all African descendants world-wide.  One of its most inspiring leaders was Marcus Garvey from Jamaica who demanded an end to colonial rule.

2. African-American scholar/activist

W.E.B. DuBois organized the first Pan-African Congress in Paris in 1919 during the Versailles Treaty conference. 

3. They called for the Paris peacemakers to approve a charter of rights for Africans and an end to colonialism.  They were ignored, but the meeting helped establish cooperation between African leaders.
4. C) Writers Celebrate African Culture
5. French speaking African writers living in Paris founded the negritude movement. 
6. Wrote stories that expressed pride                      in their African roots & culture
7. Protested colonial rule
8. Used themes such as the human

                                  desire for freedom and dignity

2. Leopold Senghor, a poet from

Senegal celebrated his

country’s rich culture & history

1. D) Independence for Egypt
2. Resistance to British rule flared up

as World War I ended

2.    Western educated Egyptians united behind the WAHFT party and launched strikes and protests
3.     In 1922 Britain agreed to grant Egypt its independence, though British troops would remain to guard the Suez Canal.

       III  Modernization of Turkey and Persia

1. Ataturk Takes power
2. In 1918 the Ottoman Empire was

near collapse.  Its Arab lands were divided between Britain and France under the Mandate System

2. The peninsula of Asia Minor

remained under Turkish control.

3. The Treaty of Sevres in 1920 took

Away any Arab land still under Ottoman control

4. Sensing weakness, a Greek army

Landed at Smyrna and claimed the province for itself. 

5. Turkish nationalists under

Mustafa Kemal overthrew the Ottoman sultan and defeated the Greeks, declaring Turkey a republic

6. Taking the name Ataturk (father

 of the Turks) Kemal negotiated a new treaty ending the fighting

1. Westernization of Turkey
2. Between 1923 & 1938 Ataturk

forced through a series of radical reforms to modernize the country   

2. He separated Islamic traditions

And replaced them with western alternatives,

1. European law replaced religious law
2. The western alphabet replaced the Arabic alphabet
3. State schools replaced religious schools

3. He encouraged industrial growth
4. Turks forced to adopt western-style

clothing

4. The government built railroads &

hired westerners to advise on how to make Turkey economically independent.

5. To many, Ataturk was a hero,

though he had to use dictatorial power to push through his reforms.

6. Some Turkish Muslims rejected his

Formation of a secular government, preferring religious law to western separation of religious beliefs from government.

1. Persian Nationalism and Reform
2. Ataturk’s success inspired Persian

nationalists who were unhappy with the influence Great Britain had over their country since 1907

2. An army officer, Reza Khan, led a

revolt that overthrew the shah.  He then named himself as the new shah of Persia.

3. Reza rushed to modernize Persia &

make it independent.  He built factories, roads, railroads and strengthened the army

4. He forced his people to wear

Western style clothes and set up modern, secular schools.  He also replaced Islamic law with secular law and encouraged women to participate in public life.

5. While the shah had support from

Wealthy urban Persians, many Muslim religious leaders rejected these changes.

6. Reza Khan also convinced the

British company that controlled Persia’s oil industry to give Persia a larger share of the profits and hire Persians to work at all levels of the company. 

7. Oil would become a major factor

 in Persia’s economy and foreign policy